--- name: vector-tile-encoding description: How 37 map engines lay out vector geometry and attributes in a tile or baked binary (integer grid and extent, framing and versioning, columnar vs record layout, which encodings pay, pre-triangulation, ids, clipping at bake time), and how they decode foreign tiles (MVT, MLT, PMTiles) at run time. Load it when a map-from-scratch request needs tiles or a multi-zoom baked format, when bake.ts must clip data into tiles, when a renderer must read MVT/MLT/PMTiles at run time, or when choosing quantisation, compression or triangles-vs-outlines for a binary format. --- # Vector tile encoding: what to put in a tile, and what to leave out Every engine that draws vector data splits it into pieces the client can fetch, keep and draw independently, and every one of them then has to decide the same things: how coordinates are quantised, how a reader finds features and vertices, how attributes and strings are stored, whether triangles ship or are rebuilt, what happens to features cut at tile edges, and how the format can change later. General engines must also read formats they did not design (MVT, MLT, PMTiles), and much of their effort goes into undoing those formats' choices at run time. A renderer here owns its bake step (the rule in skills/map-from-scratch/SKILL.md), so most of those run-time costs can be paid once in `bake.ts`. This skill says which choices the engines measured, which paid, and which they reverted. It does not repeat patterns.md (projection at bake time, 16-bit quantisation over the bounding box, delta coding, Morton order, draw order at bake time); read that first. Per-engine detail: [references/engines.md](references/engines.md). ## Decision 0: do you need tiles at all? - All seven current examples ship untiled files (up to 17 MB gzip of data) [102]. Tiles cost per-tile headers, clipping, seams, and cross-tile identity; take them only when one view needs a small fraction of the data or the zoom range needs different detail per level. - ortho-earth's GeoPBF deliberately has no spatial index and no partial reads: 2.2-3.1 bytes per vertex on dense data, loaded whole [55][56]. Its advice: quantise-and-delta when the renderer loads everything anyway; a format with row-group or index-based partial reads when the client needs only the viewport of a big remote file [55]. - MLT's columnar layout wins on large tiles and loses on small ones: on the OpenMapTiles median tile (422 B as gzipped MVT) MLT v1 is 524 B uncompressed, and MLT v1 + gzip (428 B) decodes in 117% of gzipped MVT's time, while the largest 1% of tiles shrink 2.13x against plain MVT [1]. Many tiny tiles pay header overhead that a few large ones do not. - Marble publishes vector tiles only at odd zoom levels 1-17, halving bake output; the client draws each level across two zoom steps [73]. ## Coordinates and framing - **Integer grid per tile, origin at the tile corner, overshoot allowed.** MVT/MLT use a per-layer extent (default 4096); coordinates may be negative or exceed the extent, and tiles carry no world position, so identical tiles (open water) are stored once [2]. MapLibre Native normalises every tile to 8192, i.e. 1/16 pixel at 512 px tiles [24]. Tangram stores tile-local 0..4096 as `gl.SHORT` and heights in 1/16 m units [100]. A larger extent costs bytes [2]. Pick the extent from the deepest overzoom you will draw: tile pixels x 2^overzoom x subpixel steps. - **Keep the tile's world offset out of the vertex data and out of the model matrix's translation.** deck.gl first put a translate in the per-tile modelMatrix and later moved the offset to `coordinateOrigin` to fix projection precision, leaving only scale in the matrix [50][48]. Converting every vertex back to lng/lat on the CPU was rejected as a "significant perf cost" [48]. This tile-local layout does not carry over to a globe: deck.gl turns its binary path off for GlobeView [54]. - **Little-endian, aligned for typed-array views.** MLT switched its integers from big- to little-endian for performance and to match other implementations [20]. Cesium shipped a misaligned-offset bug; the correct padding is `off += (4 - off % 4) % 4`, not `off += off % 4` [44]. GRASS writes its files in machine-native order with a little/big-endian flag, and files in either order can be read [65]. - **Version per chunk, skippable, never changed once final.** MLT frames are `size, tag, body`; the tag follows the size so it is one byte that can be skipped without varint parsing; a finalised tag never changes, new capabilities get a new tag [2]. Cesium's quantized-mesh replaced an extension bitfield with id + 32-bit length framing so clients skip unknown extensions [43]. GRASS files carry both a version and a minimum reader version [65]. For a single renderer that ships with its data, one magic + version word is enough; frames pay off when data and renderer update separately [2]. - **Derive counts instead of storing them.** MLT v2 cut stream headers to one byte by implying role, count and length from position and feature count, and dropped the types stream for single-type layers: uncompressed v2 is 9-10% smaller than v1, median tile 442 B vs 524 B [4][1]. ## Geometry layout - **Counts/offsets, not drawing commands.** MLT stores geometries -> parts -> rings -> vertices as count streams; prefix sums give per-feature starts in ~0.006 ms on a 1.3 MB tile of 524,482 vertices vs ~3.8 ms for a full column decode [3]. That is what batching, picking and line labels need. - **Ship the GPU layout.** deck.gl's performance guide says 99% of its CPU buffer-update time is accessor calls, and its roadmap says "binary first"; apps pass typed arrays straight as attributes [46]. Parsing MVT straight to typed arrays and triangulating in the worker gave 1.94-2.4x tile throughput and cut a 988K-vertex viewport load from 6242 to 2713 ms; a 12K-vertex set gained only 13% [45]. Narrow attribute types are free wins: ortho-earth's Uint8 normalised colours cut geometry bytes from 16.28 to 9.20 MB with bit-identical positions [59]. - **Triangles or outlines: price it per layer.** Shipping triangles in MLT grew tiles 21.9-35.8% and made decode slower, +14% to +145% depending on data and version [1]. MLT's Rust encoder replaced a bool with `Tessellation::Auto(client, network)`, weighing transfer time (3G 4 us/B, 4G 400 ns/B, 5G 40 ns/B, offline 0) against fitted earcut time with a 2x slowdown for a mid-range phone [8]. Triangles-only layers (no outlines) save little (+23.2% vs +24.9% on v2 OMT) [1], and a decoder can no longer stroke the outline or rebuild the encoded geometry [9]. Separately, MLT's Java decoder threw a NullPointerException on any polygons tessellated without outlines until it was changed to reject them with an explicit error [9]. - **Define ring closure and winding explicitly, and test decoded area.** mlt-core's decoded rings repeated the closing point while the baked triangles assumed they did not, misaligning holes (area 134.5 instead of 91) [26]. OpenLayers splits rings by winding only for tile features, trusting the MVT convention [97]. GeoPBF omits the closing vertex and restarts the delta chain per ring [55]. - **Size decode buffers from measured expansion.** MLT tiles decode to 5-17x their encoded size; a 20 MiB budget rejected multi-MB tiles and was raised to 128 MiB [26]. ## Attributes and strings - **Drop at bake time what no rule draws.** QGIS added an API so the decoder skips layers the style does not use, because OS ZoomStack carries buildings even at small scales [62]; ortho-earth's decoder skips string decoding for unused layers [60]. Marble chose the opposite (keeping tagged data it does not render) only because its tiles are a shared product [84]. GRASS stopped writing labels that map a value to itself ("1: 1") [72]. - **Flatten nested properties at bake time.** Tangram's `parse_json` parses stringified JSON in MVT properties, preferably only for named fields, because JS filter functions were an order of magnitude slower in Tangram ES and stringified values cannot be deduplicated in the MVT value table [101]. - **Which MLT encodings paid on basemaps.** Planet size (uncompressed) and decode time when one encoder option is toggled, OpenMapTiles / Protomaps [1][5]: | Encoding | Measured effect | Verdict for a small renderer | | --- | --- | --- | | shared dictionary across `name:*` | turning it off: size +25.4% / +0.8%, decode +15..27% / +1..2% | yes, if many label languages | | FastPFOR (vs varint) | off: size +2.6..3.4%, decode +11..15% | no; varint or bitpacking is enough [6] | | bitpacked dictionary codes | off: size +0.7% / +0.3%, decode +1% / 0% | yes, simple | | delta2 for dense lines | on: size -0.5..-0.6%, decode 0..+1% | only for smooth dense lines | | FSST strings | off: size +0.2..0.8%, decode 0..3% faster | no | | feature sorting | `--sort all`: size -0.4% / -0.1%, decode within 1% | no; keep draw order | | ALP, float dictionary | off: size +0.0..0.1% | no; quantise floats to ints | | rANS on vertices | on: size -5.4% / -5.3%, decode +16% / +88% | no, unless bytes dominate | rANS on plain v2 vertex streams cut total size 15-20% in another measurement; OMT decode was unchanged but two smaller tilesets slowed (amazon 5.4 -> 8.3 ms, bing 3.3 -> 6.35 ms) [10]. FastPFOR's SIMD output did not match the non-SIMD decoder and would not build on ARMv7, so the C++ side vendored it without SIMD [18]. - **Measure after transport compression.** On the OMT median tile, plain MVT decodes in 40% of gzipped MVT's time [1]. Without compression MLT archives were larger than the gzipped MVT input [21]. GeoPBF is 5-17x smaller than GeoJSON raw but only 1.8-4.0x once both are gzipped [55]. - **Ids: assign your own, stable across tiles.** QGIS ignores MVT feature ids because real mbtiles reuse them across tiles [64]. deck.gl needed a stable feature id (`uniqueIdProperty`) so hover highlights every tile's piece of a clipped polygon [47]. MapLibre Native indexes a feature only in the tile it falls in and queries neighbouring tiles instead [29]. ## Clipping and simplifying at bake time - **Use a rectangle clipper, and keep vertex order.** Marble moved from its own Weiler-Atherton (glitches, endless loops) to Clipper, then to Clipper2's rect clip, mainly because rect clipping keeps vertex order, which one-way streets, cliffs and embankments depend on [75][87]. Elements wholly inside a tile pass through unclipped [86]. Closed line strings (boundaries) must be clipped as open lines, or a box-sized rectangle appears when the tile lies inside the ring [76]. Carry per-vertex ids through the clipper (Clipper2's z) rather than recovering them by coordinate lookup [88]. - **Simplify before clipping, and test small closed rings.** Marble's Douglas-Peucker lost roundabouts at level 15 and below [74], and dropping real nodes next to synthetic border nodes turned an L-shaped line into a diagonal [89]. - **Assert units at every quantisation.** Marble fed radians into a degree-scaled integer conversion and silently quantised ~60x coarser, destroying sub-meter structures [81]. Marble's o5m writer also measured a 250-character limit in UTF-16 units instead of UTF-8 bytes, which garbled the string table [85]. - **Seams.** deck.gl rejected merging split polygons across tiles (turf union) in favour of independent tiles clipped per tile [48]; OpenLayers clips at the tile boundary so buffered polygons get no stroke at tile edges [95] and anchors fill patterns in world space on a 512 px grid [94]. Marble merges lines split across tiles by OSM id for better street labels [78]. - **Golden tests per tiny input.** Marble feeds one small OSM input per case and diffs every generated tile against a reference, known errors included, so each later clipper change shows up as a reviewable diff [92]. ## Reading foreign tiles at run time - **Write a flat decoder.** ortho-earth replaced `@mapbox/vector-tile` (a Point object per vertex) with a decoder into `{coords: Int32Array, ends}`: 27.8 -> 18.0 ms on 37 tiles, bit-identical, bundle -4.5 kB [60]. OpenLayers dropped the same dependency and transforms coordinates once while parsing [96]. maplibre-rs stopped feeding MVT through an SVG path builder because MoveTo/LineTo/ClosePath semantics differ from SVG's [34]. - **Normalise every format to one internal representation, chosen explicitly.** ortho-earth decodes MVT and MLT (plugin) to the same flat structure and takes the format from the style or PMTiles `tileType`, never by sniffing [57]; Cesium turns MVT into its own vector glTF through a codec interface and treats 404/204 as empty tiles [40]; its 2016 vector tiles had been a separate 3D-specific format [42]. MapLibre Native's maintainers lean to separate endpoints plus `encoding` over Accept negotiation [27]. - **PMTiles.** MapLibre Native reads a 127-byte header, the root directory, at most three leaf levels, then exactly the tile's range, and returns nothing for zooms outside the header without a request [30]. It checks gzip magic bytes instead of trusting the header's compression flag, and turns corrupt data into an error rather than a crash [31]. Details of Range reading belong to the data-range-requests know-how. - **Do not materialise features as app objects.** Re:Earth deleted a per-feature mirror (md5 keys, two caches) and evaluates style while rasterising [38]; deck.gl converts tile data to WGS84 only when the app reads it [52]. ## Tried and reverted - MLT: encoder profiles removed as premature, reintroduced once tessellation and encodings were priced per client and network [14]; ALP and Pseudodecimal removed as never implemented, ALP reintroduced exception-free with a bit-exact round-trip check [17][7]; Morton-RLE and plain Morton removed (sorted unique keys make delta win, and they crashed decoders) [11]; Hilbert and id sorting dropped from `auto` (<0.5% for >30% encode time) [13]; source order made the default [7]; a HyperLogLog gate never fired above ~1.5k vertices because of an inverted formula, replaced by an exact count [12]. - MapLibre GL JS kept MVT as the worker-to-main transfer format and fixed the encoder rather than ship raw objects, at the cost of dropping undefined property keys [33]. - Cesium removed its `dequantizeInShader` option and had to disable Draco quantisation for a release [39]; it decodes quantised attributes in the vertex shader rather than expanding them to floats [41]. - Marble abandoned border-point annotations: derived from already-clipped paths, they carried nothing a client could use [90][77]. - GRASS dropped hand-rolled RLE for zlib, then made ZSTD the default [68][71]. ## For a renderer here Do as the engines did: - Quantise to a tile-local integer grid with a buffer, Uint16/Int16, offset per tile as a uniform, little-endian, 4-byte aligned, with a version word [2][24][50][44]. - Store counts/offsets and the exact GPU vertex layout, so the client uploads a slice of the fetched buffer [3][46]. - Assign your own ids at bake time, stable across tiles, if anything is picked or highlighted [64][47]. - Clip with an axis-aligned rect clipper after simplifying, pass contained features through, and keep golden tile tests [87][86][89][92]. - Report per-tile-size percentiles, compare compressed against compressed, and pick encodings by stored bytes on a sample, not estimates [1][55][6]. Skip what the narrow purpose makes unnecessary: - Tiles themselves, if the whole data fits the page budget [55]. - Frames and skippable chunks, if renderer and data ship together [2]. - FastPFOR, FSST, ALP, rANS and feature reordering: under 1-5% on basemaps, most of them slower to decode [1]. Use delta + varint or bitpacking and let gzip/brotli do the rest [1][6]. - Pre-triangulation when bytes over the network dominate; ship triangles when the data is local or offline (network cost 0) and the client is CPU-starved [8]. - Run-time MVT parsing, layer filtering, JSON property parsing and seam merging: all of it moves into `bake.ts` [45][62][101][48]. ## Sources Local paths are under `ref-repos/` of this repository; commits are in the corresponding clone or on GitHub. 1. ref-repos/maplibre__maplibre-tile-spec/docs/benchmarks.md; https://github.com/maplibre/maplibre-tile-spec/blob/main/docs/benchmarks.md 2. ref-repos/maplibre__maplibre-tile-spec/docs/overview.md; https://github.com/maplibre/maplibre-tile-spec/blob/main/docs/overview.md; ref-repos/maplibre__maplibre-tile-spec/rust/mlt-core/README.md 3. ref-repos/maplibre__maplibre-tile-spec/docs/specification/v1.md; ref-repos/maplibre__maplibre-tile-spec/rust/mlt-wasm/README.md 4. ref-repos/maplibre__maplibre-tile-spec/docs/specification/v2.md 5. ref-repos/maplibre__maplibre-tile-spec/docs/encodings.md 6. ref-repos/maplibre__maplibre-tile-spec/docs/implementation-guide.md 7. ref-repos/maplibre__maplibre-tile-spec/rust/mlt-core/CHANGELOG.md 8. https://github.com/yuiseki/maplibre-tile-spec/commit/a7eac51d; 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README.md of this repository (example sizes)