git:20260624.531616f to git:20260820.938c770

- - Add **NOT NULL** everywhere it’s semantically required; use **DEFAULT**s for common values.

- ## PostgreSQL “Gotchas”

- - **Identifiers**: unquoted → lowercased. Avoid quoted/mixed-case names. Convention: use `snake_case` for table/column names.

- - **No silent coercions**: length/precision overflows error out (no truncation). Example: inserting 999 into `NUMERIC(2,0)` fails with error, unlike some databases that silently truncate or round.

- - **Sequences/identity have gaps** (normal; don't "fix"). Rollbacks, crashes, and concurrent transactions create gaps in ID sequences (1, 2, 5, 6...). This is expected behavior—don't try to make IDs consecutive.

- - **Heap storage**: no clustered PK by default (unlike SQL Server/MySQL InnoDB); `CLUSTER` is one-off reorganization, not maintained on subsequent inserts. Row order on disk is insertion order unless explicitly clustered.

- - **MVCC**: updates/deletes leave dead tuples; vacuum handles them—design to avoid hot wide-row churn.

-

- ## Data Types

-

- - **IDs**: `BIGINT GENERATED ALWAYS AS IDENTITY` preferred (`GENERATED BY DEFAULT` also fine); `UUID` when merging/federating/used in a distributed system or for opaque IDs. Generate with `uuidv7()` (preferred if using PG18+) or `gen_random_uuid()` (if using an older PG version).

- - **Integers**: prefer `BIGINT` unless storage space is critical; `INTEGER` for smaller ranges; avoid `SMALLINT` unless constrained.

- - **Floats**: prefer `DOUBLE PRECISION` over `REAL` unless storage space is critical. Use `NUMERIC` for exact decimal arithmetic.

- - **Strings**: prefer `TEXT`; if length limits needed, use `CHECK (LENGTH(col) <= n)` instead of `VARCHAR(n)`; avoid `CHAR(n)`. Use `BYTEA` for binary data. Large strings/binary (>2KB default threshold) automatically stored in TOAST with compression. TOAST storage: `PLAIN` (no TOAST), `EXTENDED` (compress + out-of-line), `EXTERNAL` (out-of-line, no compress), `MAIN` (compress, keep in-line if possible). Default `EXTENDED` usually optimal. Control with `ALTER TABLE tbl ALTER COLUMN col SET STORAGE strategy` and `ALTER TABLE tbl SET (toast_tuple_target = 4096)` for threshold. Case-insensitive: for locale/accent handling use non-deterministic collations; for plain ASCII use expression indexes on `LOWER(col)` (preferred unless column needs case-insensitive PK/FK/UNIQUE) or `CITEXT`.

- - **Money**: `NUMERIC(p,s)` (never float).

- - **Time**: `TIMESTAMPTZ` for timestamps; `DATE` for date-only; `INTERVAL` for durations. Avoid `TIMESTAMP` (without timezone). Use `now()` for transaction start time, `clock_timestamp()` for current wall-clock time.

- - **Booleans**: `BOOLEAN` with `NOT NULL` constraint unless tri-state values are required.

- - **Enums**: `CREATE TYPE ... AS ENUM` for small, stable sets (e.g. US states, days of week). For business-logic-driven and evolving values (e.g. order statuses) → use TEXT (or INT) + CHECK or lookup table.

- - **Arrays**: `TEXT[]`, `INTEGER[]`, etc. Use for ordered lists where you query elements. Index with **GIN** for containment (`@>`, `<@`) and overlap (`&&`) queries. Access: `arr[1]` (1-indexed), `arr[1:3]` (slicing). Good for tags, categories; avoid for relations—use junction tables instead. Literal syntax: `'{val1,val2}'` or `ARRAY[val1,val2]`.

- - **Range types**: `daterange`, `numrange`, `tstzrange` for intervals. Support overlap (`&&`), containment (`@>`), operators. Index with **GiST**. Good for scheduling, versioning, numeric ranges. Pick a bounds scheme and use it consistently; prefer `[)` (inclusive/exclusive) by default.

- - **Network types**: `INET` for IP addresses, `CIDR` for network ranges, `MACADDR` for MAC addresses. Support network operators (`<<`, `>>`, `&&`).

- - **Geometric types**: `POINT`, `LINE`, `POLYGON`, `CIRCLE` for 2D spatial data. Index with **GiST**. Consider **PostGIS** for advanced spatial features.

- - **Text search**: `TSVECTOR` for full-text search documents, `TSQUERY` for search queries. Index `tsvector` with **GIN**. Always specify language: `to_tsvector('english', col)` and `to_tsquery('english', 'query')`. Never use single-argument versions. This applies to both index expressions and queries.

- - **Domain types**: `CREATE DOMAIN email AS TEXT CHECK (VALUE ~ '^[^@]+@[^@]+$')` for reusable custom types with validation. Enforces constraints across tables.

- - **Composite types**: `CREATE TYPE address AS (street TEXT, city TEXT, zip TEXT)` for structured data within columns. Access with `(col).field` syntax.

- - **JSONB**: preferred over JSON; index with **GIN**. Use only for optional/semi-structured attrs. ONLY use JSON if the original ordering of the contents MUST be preserved.

- - **Vector types**: `vector` type by `pgvector` for vector similarity search for embeddings.

-

- ### Do not use the following data types

-

- - DO NOT use `timestamp` (without time zone); DO use `timestamptz` instead.

- - DO NOT use `char(n)` or `varchar(n)`; DO use `text` instead.

- - DO NOT use `money` type; DO use `numeric` instead.

- - DO NOT use `timetz` type; DO use `timestamptz` instead.

- - DO NOT use `timestamptz(0)` or any other precision specification; DO use `timestamptz` instead

- - DO NOT use `serial` type; DO use `generated always as identity` instead.

-

- ## Table Types

-

- - **Regular**: default; fully durable, logged.

- - **TEMPORARY**: session-scoped, auto-dropped, not logged. Faster for scratch work.

- - **UNLOGGED**: persistent but not crash-safe. Faster writes; good for caches/staging.

-

- ## Row-Level Security

-

- Enable with `ALTER TABLE tbl ENABLE ROW LEVEL SECURITY`. Create policies: `CREATE POLICY user_access ON orders FOR SELECT TO app_users USING (user_id = current_user_id())`. Built-in user-based access control at the row level.

-

- ## Constraints

-

- - **PK**: implicit UNIQUE + NOT NULL; creates a B-tree index.

- - **FK**: specify `ON DELETE/UPDATE` action (`CASCADE`, `RESTRICT`, `SET NULL`, `SET DEFAULT`). Add explicit index on referencing column—speeds up joins and prevents locking issues on parent deletes/updates. Use `DEFERRABLE INITIALLY DEFERRED` for circular FK dependencies checked at transaction end.

- - **UNIQUE**: creates a B-tree index; allows multiple NULLs unless `NULLS NOT DISTINCT` (PG15+). Standard behavior: `(1, NULL)` and `(1, NULL)` are allowed. With `NULLS NOT DISTINCT`: only one `(1, NULL)` allowed. Prefer `NULLS NOT DISTINCT` unless you specifically need duplicate NULLs.

- - **CHECK**: row-local constraints; NULL values pass the check (three-valued logic). Example: `CHECK (price > 0)` allows NULL prices. Combine with `NOT NULL` to enforce: `price NUMERIC NOT NULL CHECK (price > 0)`.

- - **EXCLUDE**: prevents overlapping values using operators. `EXCLUDE USING gist (room_id WITH =, booking_period WITH &&)` prevents double-booking rooms. Requires appropriate index type (often GiST).

-

- ## Indexing

-

- - **B-tree**: default for equality/range queries (`=`, `<`, `>`, `BETWEEN`, `ORDER BY`)

- - **Composite**: order matters—index used if equality on leftmost prefix (`WHERE a = ? AND b > ?` uses index on `(a,b)`, but `WHERE b = ?` does not). Put most selective/frequently filtered columns first.

- - **Covering**: `CREATE INDEX ON tbl (id) INCLUDE (name, email)` - includes non-key columns for index-only scans without visiting table.

- - **Partial**: for hot subsets (`WHERE status = 'active'` → `CREATE INDEX ON tbl (user_id) WHERE status = 'active'`). Any query with `status = 'active'` can use this index.

- - **Expression**: for computed search keys (`CREATE INDEX ON tbl (LOWER(email))`). Expression must match exactly in WHERE clause: `WHERE LOWER(email) = 'user@example.com'`.

- - **GIN**: JSONB containment/existence, arrays (`@>`, `?`), full-text search (`@@`)

- - **GiST**: ranges, geometry, exclusion constraints

- - **BRIN**: very large, naturally ordered data (time-series)—minimal storage overhead. Effective when row order on disk correlates with indexed column (insertion order or after `CLUSTER`).

-

- ## Partitioning

-

- - Use for very large tables (>100M rows) where queries consistently filter on partition key (often time/date).

- - Alternate use: use for tables where data maintenance tasks dictates e.g. data pruned or bulk replaced periodically

- - **RANGE**: common for time-series (`PARTITION BY RANGE (created_at)`). Create partitions: `CREATE TABLE logs_2024_01 PARTITION OF logs FOR VALUES FROM ('2024-01-01') TO ('2024-02-01')`. **TimescaleDB** automates time-based or ID-based partitioning with retention policies and compression.

- - **LIST**: for discrete values (`PARTITION BY LIST (region)`). Example: `FOR VALUES IN ('us-east', 'us-west')`.

- - **HASH**: for even distribution when no natural key (`PARTITION BY HASH (user_id)`). Creates N partitions with modulus.

- - **Constraint exclusion**: requires `CHECK` constraints on partitions for query planner to prune. Auto-created for declarative partitioning (PG10+).

- - Prefer declarative partitioning or hypertables. Do NOT use table inheritance.

- - **Limitations**: no global UNIQUE constraints—include partition key in PK/UNIQUE. FKs from partitioned tables not supported; use triggers.

-

- ## Special Considerations

-

- ### Update-Heavy Tables

-

- - **Separate hot/cold columns**—put frequently updated columns in separate table to minimize bloat.

- - **Use `fillfactor=90`** to leave space for HOT updates that avoid index maintenance.

- - **Avoid updating indexed columns**—prevents beneficial HOT updates.

- - **Partition by update patterns**—separate frequently updated rows in a different partition from stable data.

-

- ### Insert-Heavy Workloads

-

- - **Minimize indexes**—only create what you query; every index slows inserts.

- - **Use `COPY` or multi-row `INSERT`** instead of single-row inserts.

- - **UNLOGGED tables** for rebuildable staging data—much faster writes.

- - **Defer index creation** for bulk loads—>drop index, load data, recreate indexes.

- - **Partition by time/hash** to distribute load. **TimescaleDB** automates partitioning and compression of insert-heavy data.

- - **Use a natural key for primary key** such as a (timestamp, device_id) if enforcing global uniqueness is important many insert-heavy tables don't need a primary key at all.

- - If you do need a surrogate key, **Prefer `BIGINT GENERATED ALWAYS AS IDENTITY` over `UUID`**.

-

- ### Upsert-Friendly Design

-

- - **Requires UNIQUE index** on conflict target columns—`ON CONFLICT (col1, col2)` needs exact matching unique index (partial indexes don't work).

- - **Use `EXCLUDED.column`** to reference would-be-inserted values; only update columns that actually changed to reduce write overhead.

- - **`DO NOTHING` faster** than `DO UPDATE` when no actual update needed.

-

- ### Safe Schema Evolution

-

- - **Transactional DDL**: most DDL operations can run in transactions and be rolled back—`BEGIN; ALTER TABLE...; ROLLBACK;` for safe testing.

- - **Concurrent index creation**: `CREATE INDEX CONCURRENTLY` avoids blocking writes but can't run in transactions.

- - **Volatile defaults cause rewrites**: adding `NOT NULL` columns with volatile defaults (e.g., `now()`, `gen_random_uuid()`) rewrites entire table. Non-volatile defaults are fast.

- - **Drop constraints before columns**: `ALTER TABLE DROP CONSTRAINT` then `DROP COLUMN` to avoid dependency issues.

- - **Function signature changes**: `CREATE OR REPLACE` with different arguments creates overloads, not replacements. DROP old version if no overload desired.

-

- ## Generated Columns

-

- - `... GENERATED ALWAYS AS (<expr>) STORED` for computed, indexable fields. PG18+ adds `VIRTUAL` columns (computed on read, not stored).

-

- ## Extensions

-

- - **`pgcrypto`**: `crypt()` for password hashing.

- - **`uuid-ossp`**: alternative UUID functions; prefer `pgcrypto` for new projects.

- - **`pg_trgm`**: fuzzy text search with `%` operator, `similarity()` function. Index with GIN for `LIKE '%pattern%'` acceleration.

- - **`citext`**: case-insensitive text type. Prefer expression indexes on `LOWER(col)` unless you need case-insensitive constraints.

- - **`btree_gin`/`btree_gist`**: enable mixed-type indexes (e.g., GIN index on both JSONB and text columns).

- - **`hstore`**: key-value pairs; mostly superseded by JSONB but useful for simple string mappings.

- - **`timescaledb`**: essential for time-series—automated partitioning, retention, compression, continuous aggregates.

- - **`postgis`**: comprehensive geospatial support beyond basic geometric types—essential for location-based applications.

- - **`pgvector`**: vector similarity search for embeddings.

- - **`pgaudit`**: audit logging for all database activity.

-

- ## JSONB Guidance

-

- - Prefer `JSONB` with **GIN** index.

- - Default: `CREATE INDEX ON tbl USING GIN (jsonb_col);` → accelerates:

- - **Containment** `jsonb_col @> '{"k":"v"}'`

- - **Key existence** `jsonb_col ? 'k'`, **any/all keys** `?\|`, `?&`

- - **Path containment** on nested docs

- - **Disjunction** `jsonb_col @> ANY(ARRAY['{"status":"active"}', '{"status":"pending"}'])`

- - Heavy `@>` workloads: consider opclass `jsonb_path_ops` for smaller/faster containment-only indexes:

- - `CREATE INDEX ON tbl USING GIN (jsonb_col jsonb_path_ops);`

- - **Trade-off**: loses support for key existence (`?`, `?|`, `?&`) queries—only supports containment (`@>`)

- - Equality/range on a specific scalar field: extract and index with B-tree (generated column or expression):

- - `ALTER TABLE tbl ADD COLUMN price INT GENERATED ALWAYS AS ((jsonb_col->>'price')::INT) STORED;`

- - `CREATE INDEX ON tbl (price);`

- - Prefer queries like `WHERE price BETWEEN 100 AND 500` (uses B-tree) over `WHERE (jsonb_col->>'price')::INT BETWEEN 100 AND 500` without index.

- - Arrays inside JSONB: use GIN + `@>` for containment (e.g., tags). Consider `jsonb_path_ops` if only doing containment.

- - Keep core relations in tables; use JSONB for optional/variable attributes.

- - Use constraints to limit allowed JSONB values in a column e.g. `config JSONB NOT NULL CHECK(jsonb_typeof(config) = 'object')`

-

- ## Examples

-

- ### Users

-

- ```sql

- CREATE TABLE users (

- user_id BIGINT GENERATED ALWAYS AS IDENTITY PRIMARY KEY,

- email TEXT NOT NULL UNIQUE,

- name TEXT NOT NULL,

- created_at TIMESTAMPTZ NOT NULL DEFAULT now()

- );

- CREATE UNIQUE INDEX ON users (LOWER(email));

- CREATE INDEX ON users (created_at);

- ```

-

- ### Orders

- ```sql

- CREATE TABLE orders (

- order_id BIGINT GENERATED ALWAYS AS IDENTITY PRIMARY KEY,

- user_id BIGINT NOT NULL REFERENCES users(user_id),

- status TEXT NOT NULL DEFAULT 'PENDING' CHECK (status IN ('PENDING','PAID','CANCELED')),

- total NUMERIC(10,2) NOT NULL CHECK (total > 0),

- created_at TIMESTAMPTZ NOT NULL DEFAULT now()

- );

- CREATE INDEX ON orders (user_id);

- CREATE INDEX ON orders (created_at);

- ```

- ### JSONB

- ```sql

- CREATE TABLE profiles (

- user_id BIGINT PRIMARY KEY REFERENCES users(user_id),

- attrs JSONB NOT NULL DEFAULT '{}',

- theme TEXT GENERATED ALWAYS AS (attrs->>'theme') STORED

- );

- CREATE INDEX profiles_attrs_gin ON profiles USING GIN (attrs);

- ```